Queen Elizabeth I was one of England's most famous and influential monarchs, reigning for over 44 years from 1558 until her death in 1603. She was the last of the Tudor dynasty and is often referred to as 'Gloriana', the Virgin Queen or Good Queen Bess. Elizabeth's reign is known as the Elizabethan era and saw England emerge as a major world power.
Early Life
Elizabeth was born on 7 September 1533 at Greenwich Palace in London. She was the daughter of King Henry VIII and his second wife Anne Boleyn. Her older half-sister was Mary, daughter of Henry's first wife Catherine of Aragon. Elizabeth's early life was turbulent - her mother was executed on false charges of adultery and treason when Elizabeth was just two years old. Elizabeth was declared illegitimate and lost the title of princess. However, she was later reinstated into the line of succession behind Mary and their younger half-brother Edward.
As a child, Elizabeth received an excellent education and was a talented student. She studied arithmetic, canon law, classical literature, geography, history, mathematics, music, and writing and was fluent in French and Italian. This education shaped her intelligence and prepared her for the throne.
Accession to the Throne
Henry VIII died in 1547 and Elizabeth's younger half-brother became King Edward VI. Edward was strongly Protestant and enabled Elizabeth to practice her Protestant faith. When Edward died in 1553, Mary became queen. Under Mary, England briefly returned to Roman Catholicism and Elizabeth conformed outwardly to Catholic practices. After Mary died in 1558, Elizabeth succeeded to the throne aged 25. She skilfully returned England to Protestantism and held the middle ground between Catholics and Puritans.
Religion
In 1559, Elizabeth introduced the Elizabethan Religious Settlement to mend England's religious divisions. This established Protestantism in England with Elizabeth as Supreme Governor of the Church of England. While Catholics were initially tolerated, several factors turned Elizabeth against them - the 1570 papal bull excommunicating Elizabeth, Catholic support for Mary, Queen of Scots' claim to the English throne and the threat of invasion from Catholic Spain and France. Recusancy fines on Catholics increased and laws against Catholic priests became harsher.
Elizabeth aimed for religious peace by seeking a middle way between Puritans and Catholics and required outward conformity to the Church of England. But she could be flexible - many of her advisors were crypto-Catholics. While Elizabeth restored Protestantism, she kept some Catholic customs such as candles on the altar and clerical vestments. Her religious settlement shaped English Protestant identity and culture.
Foreign Policy & War
Elizabeth inherited foreign policy problems from Mary - the war against France and the loss of Calais. In 1558, England was allied with Spain against France and at war with Scotland. Elizabeth made peace with France and ended England's troublesome alliance with Spain.
In 1588, Elizabeth sent Sir Francis Drake on a voyage that culminated in an attack on Spanish ships in Cadiz harbour, delaying the Spanish Armada. Philip II of Spain then planned an invasion of England to overthrow Elizabeth and restore Catholicism. In 1588, the Spanish Armada sailed for England but was defeated. This was a triumph for Elizabeth and shattered Spain's dominance.
Elizabeth increased English power through exploration and colonisation. She supported voyages to the Americas and Asia, establishing England's first American colonies and strengthening trade ties with the Far East. This laid the foundations for the British Empire.
Mary, Queen of Scots
Mary, Queen of Scots was Elizabeth's Catholic cousin and heir presumptive. She was forced to abdicate the Scottish throne in 1567 and fled to England seeking Elizabeth's support in regaining her throne. Instead, Elizabeth detained her under house arrest for 19 years as she was considered a threat.
In 1586, Elizabeth sanctioned Mary's trial for plotting against her. Mary was found guilty of treason and executed in 1587 at Fotheringhay Castle, Northamptonshire. This was controversial but removed the threat Mary posed. It also incurred the wrath of Catholic Europe. But Elizabeth protected England from foreign retaliation and strengthened her throne.
Later Years
In her later years, Elizabeth skillfully managed conflicting parliamentary factions. She used her charm, imperiousness and threats of force to great effect and never allowed anyone to gain ascendancy over her. Elizabeth mastered the art of divide and rule.
Elizabeth never married or named an heir. Many suitors vied for her hand including Philip II of Spain, Archduke Charles of Austria and Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester - her great love. But Elizabeth used the prospect of marriage to secure political alliances and believed a husband would undermine her authority.
Elizabeth fell ill in late 1602 aged 69 and died on 24 March 1603 at Richmond Palace, Surrey. She was buried in Westminster Abbey. Elizabeth left England as a major world power with a cultural renaissance bearing her name. She proved that a woman could successfully rule and she inspired loyalty through her intellect, courage and patriotism.
